Chapter I
Introduction
In 1973, David C. McClelland published
a paper, “Testing for Competence Rather Than Intelligence,” which has been
credited or blamed for launching the competency movement in psychology[1]. According
to McClelland, competence is a tool for estimating the performance of cognitive
ability tests are often biased, and is a characteristic that distinguishes
between the average performance with superior performance.
Competence
could include aspects of knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviors of
employees. In a broad sense, competence will be associated with the
organization's strategy. Sense of competence can also be combined with soft
skills, hard skills, social skills and mental skills.
Competence
is work or role-related skills, knowledge, and other characteristic manifested
as behaviors which will give a good performance for both individual and
organization. Before
discussing more about competence, we need to know why it is important
competencies. Competence is very important because it is what distinguishes the
competence of human resources and quality are not qualified. A competence of
human resource is an asset to the organization. And conversely, an incompetent
human resources would be a burden for the organization. Employees must have the
appropriate competence to work in order to improve the quality of the firm's
output and help achieve company goals.
Companies
that pay attention to developing human resource competency are better than
companies that do not pay attention to competence. Companies that grow large
and are generally known as good human resources development program.
When one
day you are given the question, "What is the difference badminton and
football matches?". Maybe you will answer on the number of players, the
size of the ball, how to calculate the score of the game, and others. But here
there is an answer that inspires. In the game of badminton is a requirement
victory is when one player manages to reach the score of twenty. The game will
not stop until one side reaches the score. And in a football game, the game is
limited by the time of each round for 45 minutes. Any number of goals, the game
stops when time has reached 90 minutes. The winner is the superior number of
goals in the two-round game. Understanding the rule of the game is important in
any case. To be able to win in the race we have to practice and make
appropriate strategy to the type of competition and rules. Likewise in a career
that will we take. We must adjust our competence with the rule of the game in
the field that we want to work on.
World of
work and business world today is no longer just looking at education. Those
looking for something more than that. They are looking for skills, attitudes, and
behaviors they expect from someone who will be recruited. Current workforce
competencies emphasizes the suitability of candidates to be recruited. Not only
at recruitment, but also for every level of career advancement. Competence
plays an important role.
Chapter II
Literature
2.1 Definition of Competency
Competence is one factor for success. The
need to obtain a superior human resource professionals and is expected by many
companies, in this case is competence. Competence refers to the knowledge, skills,
abilities, and personality characteristics of individuals that directly affect
a person's performance. Here is the definition of competence according to the
experts:
1.
Lyle
Spencer & Signe Spencer (1993), competence is an underlying characteristic of
an individual that is causally related to criterion – referenced effective and
/ or superior performance in a job or situation.
2.
Brian E. Becher, Mark Huslid & Dave Ulrich
(2001), competence as knowledge, skills, abilities or personal characteristics
of individuals that affect directly the performance of the work.
3.
Boulter (2003), competence is a basic
characteristic of a person which enables provide superior performance in a job,
role or situation
4.
Margaret Dale (2003), describes the competence
standards and performance knowledge base needed to successfully complete the
work.
From the
various definitions, can be defined that competence is a basic characteristic
of the individual, such as knowledge, skills, and abilities required or as a
reference to be a individual professional, superior, effective and efficient in
completing the work.
As a
definition from Spencer and Spencer that competence is an underlying
characteristic of an individual that is causally related to criterion –
referenced effective and / or superior performance in a job or situation[2], we
can discuss each part of this definition: underlying characteristic, causally
related, and criterion – referenced.
A.
Underlying
Characteristics
Underlying
characteristics means that competency is a fairly deep and enduring part of a
person's personality and can predict behavior in a wide variety of situations
and job tasks. Competencies are underlying characteristics of people and
indicate “ways of behaving or thinking, generalizing across situations, and
enduring for a reasonably long period of time.”[3]
There are
five types of competency characteristics[4]:
1. Motives; The
things a person consistently thinks about or wants that cause action. Motives
“drive, direct, and select”[5]
2. Traits; Physical
characteristic and consistent responses to situations or information.
3. Self - Concept; A person’s attitudes, values, or
self – image.
4. Knowledge;
Information a person has in specific content areas.
5. Skill; The
ability to perform a certain physical or mental task.
Knowledge
and skill competencies tend to be visible and central to characteristic of
people. Self concept, trait, and motive competencies are more hidden and
central to personality. Surface knowledge and skill competencies are relatively
easy to develop; training is the most cost – effective way to secure there
employee abilities. Core motive and trait competencies at the best of the personality
iceberg are more difficult to assess and develop.
Figure: Central and Surface Competencies[6]
B.
Causal
Relationship
Motive, trait, and self – concept competencies predict skill
behavior actions which in turn predict job performance outcomes, as in the
motive / trait àbehavior à outcome casual flow model.
Figure: Competency
Causal Flow Model[7]
C.
Criterion
Reference
Criterion reference is critical to our definition of competence. A
characteristic isn’t a competency unless it predicts something meaningful in
the real world. A characteristic that
makes no difference in performance isn’t a competency and should not be used to
evaluate people. The criteria most frequently used in competency studies are[8]:
·
Superior Performance
This is
defined statiscally as one standard deviation above average performance.
·
Effective Performance
This
usualy really means a “minimally acceptable” level of work, the lower cutt off
point below which and employee wouldn’t be considered competent to de the job.
2.2 Category of Competence
There are five category of cempetence
by Michael Zwell:
1.
Task Achievement
A category of competence which related to good performance.
Competencies which related to task achievement demonstrated by: results
orientation, manage performance, affect, initiative, production efficiency,
flexibility, innovation, priority to quality, continuous improvement, and technical
expertise.
2.
Relationship
A category of competence which related to communication, have good
working relationships with others. These competencies include: teamwork,
service orientation, interpersonal awareness, organizational acumen,
relationship building, conflict resolution, communication and attention to
cross-cultural sensitivity.
3.
Personal Attributte
Intrinsic competence of individuals and connect how people think,
feel, learn, and thrive. This competency include: integrity and honesty,
self-development, assertiveness, decision quality, stress management,
analytical thinking, and conceptual thinking.
4.
Managerial
Competence that are specifically related to the management,
monitoring, and developing people. Form of managerial competence: motivate,
empower, and develop others.
5.
Leadership
Competence
which related with leading organizations and people to achieve the purpose,
vision, and goals of the organization. This competency include: visionary
leadership, strategic thinking, entrepreneurial orientation, change management,
organizational commitment construct, build focus and purpose, values.
Business
environment showed a trend of increasing technology and social change. Human
resources organizations need to understand the trend of multicultural and cultural
diversity. These circumstances make the competency of human resources is
increasingly important, both for executives, managers, and workers[9]:
1. Competence
required by executive
Strategic Thinking, Change Leadership, dan
Relationship Management
2. Competence
required by manager
Flexibilitas, Change
Implementation, Entrepreneurial Inovation, Interpersonal understanding,
Empowering, Team Facilitator, Portability
3. Competence required by worker
Flexibility, Achievement, Work
Motivation under time pressure, Collaborativeness, Customer Service
orientation.
2.3 Factors that
Influence Competence
Michael Zwell reveals that there are several factors
that can affect a person's competency skills.[10]
1.
Confidence and Values
People's beliefs about themselves and towards others will greatly
affect the behavior. If people believe that they are not creative and
innovative, they are not going to try to think of a new or different way of
doing things. Therefore everyone should think positively about themselves or to
other people and show characteristics of people who think ahead.
2.
Skills
By fixing skills, people will increase their skills in competence.
3.
Experience
Expertise requires experience. Including experience in organizing
people, communication in front of groups, solve problems, etc.. People who have
never associated with large and complex organizations are not likely to develop
organizational intelligence to understand the dynamics of power and influence
in the environment. People whose jobs require little strategic thinking about
developing competence than those who have to use strategic thinking for years.
4.
Personality Characteristics
Personality is not something that can not be changed. One's
personality can change over time. Person responds to and interacts with the power
and the environment. Although these can be changed, personality tends not
easily changed. It is unwise to expect people improve their competence by
changing his personality.
5.
Motivation
By providing support and appreciation can be a positive influence on
people's motivation
6.
Emotional Issues
Emotional barriers can limit the mastery of competencies. For
example, fear of making mistakes, being embarrassed, feeling unwelcome or not
recognized, all of them tends to limit the motivation and initiative.
7.
Intellectual ability
Competence depends on cognitive thinking such as analytical
thinking and conceptual thinking.
8.
Organizational Culture
Organiasi
culture affect human resource competencies in the following activities: 1) the
process of recruitment and selection of employees, 2) reward system, 3) practical
of decision-making, 4) organizational philosophy (mission-vision, and values
of the organization), 5) Habits and procedures, 6) Commitment to training and
development, 7) Organisational Processes.
Reference
Spencer, Lyle M., Jr., PhD, Signe
M.Spencer. Competence at Work. 1993.
Canada: John Willey & Sons, Inc.
Guion, R.M., Handbook of Industrial and Organizational
Psychology. 1991. Consulting Psychologist Press
Zwell, Michael. Creating a Culture of Competence.
2000. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Wibowo. Manajemen Kinerja. 2009. Jakarta: Rajawali Pers
[1]
Spencer & Spencer, Competence at Work,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 1993, page 3.
[2]
Spencer & Spencer, Competence at Work,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 1993, page 9.
[3]
Guion, R.M., Handbook of Industrial and
Organizational Psychology, Consulting Psychologist Press, 1991, page 335.
[4]
Spencer & Spencer, Competence at Work,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 1993, page 9-11.
[5]
The technical definition of a motive is a “recurrent concern for a goal state,
or condition, appearing in fantasy, which drives, directs, and select behavior
of the individual.” McClelland, D.C., Assesing
Human Motivation, NY: General Learning Press, 1971.
[6]
Spencer & Spencer, Competence at Work,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 1993, page 11.
[7]
Spencer & Spencer, Competence at Work,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 1993, page 13.
[8]
Spencer & Spencer, Competence at Work,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 1993, page 13.
[9]
Spencer & Spencer, Competence at Work,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 1993, page 343.